Finding, using, and citing sources in disciplinary writing
What does your professor mean by primary and secondary sources? Are primary sources more important than secondary sources? How can I integrate my sources into a paper? What is a credible source?
Starting a research project is not easy. A misconception that you might have experienced is that research is one-directional. You can not set aside 2-3 hours for research and be done. It is not so.
It is not always clear where to start looking for sources that will support your research. You need to ask yourself a few questions before you know what to look for:
- What is the overall purpose of my paper?
- What do I want to discuss, present, argue, or define?
- Who is my target audience?
These questions will frame and give direction to what is expected of the research. Additionally, it will help guide you to resources that will contribute to your work.
Use our resources below to jump start your research process!
Finding sources Accordion Open
What counts as a source?
There are many discussions about what counts as a source, and there is no simple answer. What counts as a source depends on:
- Your professor’s specifications
- Your major
- The genre of writing
- The topic of your assignment
- The purpose of your assignment
- Your audience for the assignment
For example, if your paper topic is to explore the Aurora Borealis and its connection to climate change, and your audience is scholars in the major, your data collection should include the latest work from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Weather Service.
If you work on a project on the same topic, but your audience is third-grade students, you will probably need a hand from Sid the Science Kid for your project.
If your professor asks you to use only peer-reviewed journals for your sources, you might find that the articles are very intense. Instead of giving up, do initial research to help you understand your topic:
- Wikipedia: Use it to inform yourself initially so you can find keywords and key concepts for your in-depth journal or database search.
- Google: Utilize it to understand what exists. Many organizations publish their research on their website, rather than academic journals. Always follow up these searches by critically analyzing their website.
- Google Scholar: From the NAU Cline Library page, use google scholar to bolster your database and journal searches.
- Cline Library’s website: You will find access to many academic journals and databases. Utilize these privileges while you can!
Primary vs. secondary sources
- Primary sources: original documents that are written shortly after an event took place. They can include diaries, photographs, planners, birth and death certificates, original manuscripts, oral histories, video recordings, maps, and live human beings
- Secondary sources: these sources function to interpret primary sources. This means that somebody did research using citations to point to other people’s work. They are interpretive, analytical, and draw conclusions about events that are recorded in a primary source.
Most disciplines require you to look at secondary sources so that you can understand what others have written about your topic, and what you can add to what has already been said.
Additionally, many disciplines may require you to have primary sources, like:
- Sciences: data collected by you or by your lab group is especially important.
- Anthropology: ethnographic research often focuses on interviews of participants.
- Education: teacher action research looks at student work and often includes student responses to questions, assignments, and interviews.
- History: archival research is often part of how historians collect and then interpret information.
Northern Arizona University is known for its special collections and archival materials specifically on the Colorado Plateau. You can find thousands of primary sources online (which is less than 2% of their collection!), and you can request to look at materials in person
Next steps and additional information
Now that you understand that doing research does not mean to cram 8 sources (or however many your professor asks you to use) into your paper, but rather these resources can help you make your points stronger, you are ready to start the process of finding and integrating sources.
- Redefine how you do research. Instead of cramming 2-3 hours in one sitting, make time to return to your research several times during the writing process.
- Be bold and restate your research question based on the information that you find. Change the focus if need be.
- Return to your research question often to see whether you are still on track with your research.
- Use our outline to remember what topics still need more research.
- Make time to meet with a research librarian to review your question(s) and preliminary findings. Learn more about your subject librarian.
- Check with a Writing Assistant from the University Writing Commons.
- Start Early!
Distinguish between primary and secondary sources: The University of California Santa Cruz gives you a brief overview of what is considered a primary and secondary source.
Deciding what types of sources you need: NAU’s Library DIY page on deciding what sources you need gives a good idea of how you should think of your sources, and who would most appreciate specific source types.
Evaluating resources: The University of California Berkeley’s guide on evaluating sources goes into detail about suitability and authority, addressing the importance of appropriateness of sources for your major, your purpose, and your audience.
Evaluating sources: The University of Maryland’s University College shows you how to evaluate sources. They remind you to look at an author’s credentials, at publication information, and also at sponsoring organizations, especially if you look at online sources.
Using resources: Harvard University’s Writing Program Harvard’s Guide to Evaluating Sources includes information on what kinds of questions to ask about all your sources, how you can evaluate different sources, and what decisions you need to make based on your discipline. Use the links to the left to navigate through the site.
College research paper resources: Affordable Colleges online provides an excellent resource for using the the internet and the invisible web to support your academic research.
Integrating sources Accordion Closed
How does your professor know that you are making an argument based on what other people have researched? Most likely, you are required to include sources in your writing assignment.
In many cases, the assignment instructions will tell you how many sources your professor requires. Do not get distracted by focusing solely on the number of sources. Instead, focus on how the sources can strengthen your argument, your report, your artist’s statement, or your proposal.
The sources you have collected will support these points and the only way to know is if you cite the work. Your professor wants to see whether you can integrate sources by:
- Quoting essential points.
- Summarizing overall points made by the author.
- Analyzing the main points made by an author.
- Paraphrasing concepts included in an article.
- Synthesizing information from multiple sources.
To help you understand where sources can help you with making your case as a writer, outline your paper’s sections first. This is a good way to see the entire purpose of the paper.
Similar to puzzle pieces, you can always move examples from one section to another, or you will see which area needs more evidence to support your claims. Here is an example of how you could write your outline, including the number of sources that you might need in order to support your main points:
- Introduction: [Thesis Statement, Purpose Statement, or Research Question.] “The lack of water is a direct consequence of…”
- Argument Point 1: [Topic sentence that guides the rest of the section.] “Warming of the oceans is one step that contributes to…” and [4-6 sources]”Further discussion and presentation of data and examples….”
- Example 1 ( 2-4 sources)
- Insert full citations here so it is easily accessible.
- Example 2 (2-4 sources)
- Insert full citation.
- Example 1 ( 2-4 sources)
- Argument Point 2: [Topic sentence that guides the rest of the section.] “Warming of the oceans is one step that contributes to…” and [4-6 sources]”Further discussion and presentation of data and examples….”
- Example 1 ( 2-4 sources)
- Insert full citations here so it is easily accessible.
- Example 2 (2-4 sources)
- Insert full citations here so it is easily accessible.
- Example 1 ( 2-4 sources)
Once you have a general outline of how and where in your document you will use your sources, it is important to remember that an extensive list of quotes does not show that you understood the source’s main ideas.
Integrating sources effectively will require you to use a combination of quotations, summaries, paraphrases, synthesis, and analysis.
Citing the source
When you use an author’s idea in your papers or presentations, you want to make sure that you give them credit. Many handbooks guide you on citation styles, and your professor will let you know which one is appropriate for your discipline.
Citation styles vary because each major has a professional group that decides what and how to organize information for their needs.
- Literature uses the Modern Language Association’s citation style (MLA) because the title of a publication is more important than the year it was published.
- Anthropology, Political Science, Rhetoric, and Linguistics uses The American Psychological Association (APA) because the date of publication is very important.
- Other professional groups use the Chicago Style (“Turabian” slightly modified for student use) because footnotes and endnotes are important.
- Engineers follow The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and number their citations. Numbers are included for in-text citations as well.
Citing your sources, in any of the citation styles your major or your professor requires, extends your credibility (your ethos) because it shows that you are knowledgeable about the topic that you are studying and that you checked out what others have done and studied already.
It is also a courtesy to your readers. When you read an article or a website and you want to learn more about a detail, you can look up that keyword or look up the research that led to those conclusions. To cite sources in the body of the paper allows your reader to see where you got that information from, and your reader can do more research by looking up the source.
Once you understand the reasons for citing your sources, you can begin organizing your sources and presenting them in the preferred citation style of your major or your professor. To cite correctly:
- Find out what your course citation style is. Not every professor requires the same citation style.
- Do not assume that any citation is cross-disciplinary or even disciplinary. Ask your professor.
- Do not memorize citation styles get the handbook or bookmark the online materials.
- Make time to edit your in-text citations and your Works Cited or Bibliography page. Is the punctuation correct? Did you capitalize correctly? When using a citation style, do not question the rules. They may seem arbitrary, but you are responsible for getting them right.
- Check in with a Writing Assistant from the University Writing Commons.
- Start Early!
Next steps and additional information
How to integrate sources into your paper: NAU’s Cline Library’s DIY page includes a section on integrating sources that will give you a good idea about different strategies you can use when working with sources.
Integrating sources: Harvard University provides step-by-step instructions on integrating sources. They make it clear that students need to show that the sources that they use add to their own thinking and also make their argument stronger. Click on the links on the left to get information on the role of a source, the parts that are important to choose, and the nuts and bolts of integrating your sources.
Paraphrase: Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab offers a paraphrasing exercise. You’ll find step-by-step instructions on how you can write a strong paraphrase. If you click on the links to the left, you’ll also get more information on the overall integration of sources.
Why we cite: The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill’s brief video shows you why we cite. They specifically focus on context, intellectual credibility, resources, and acknowledging other writers.
Using and citing sources: Northern Arizona University’s Cline Library’s DIY has a wonderful set of tools that help you understand approaches to using and citing sources.
Additional resources Accordion Closed
NAU library resources
The library is your best place when you try to find sources, and the librarian is your best friend when you have questions, get stuck, or need to redirect your research efforts. The library has:
- Laptops (Mac and non-Mac) that you can check out
- The latest editing software, cameras, and video cams
- Study rooms and group study rooms
- Scanners and printers
- Lockers and carrels
- Large print keyboards
- Rooms for presentation practice
- There are even rooms that let you write on the walls in addition to using white boards. It’s not just an educational place, it’s the IN place to be for all your research needs.
Cline Library services: Northern Arizona University’s Cline Library’s General Services page will help you to familiarize yourself with the library and with the many resources they have.
Information for users with disabilities: Northern Arizona University’s Cline Library provides details on how the disabled can access its facility and its resources.
Citation styles:
MLA Formatting and Style Guide
APA Formatting and Style Guide
Writing Rescue Guide for College Students: Affordable Colleges Online has compiled an excellent resource for students to find information about different citation styles. There are additional resources for writing papers, scholarship applications, and writing tips.
Primary vs. secondary resources
Primary sources in the Humanities
Special Collections and Archives at NAU: Northern Arizona University’s Special Collections and Archives are a great place to being primary source research for your assignments. It’s also a great place to learn about the history of the Colorado Plateau.